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| Aging and Diversity |
| Module 2: Diversity |
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The purpose of this Module is to understand what diversity is and why it is important in social programs and policies, research areas and individual lives. |
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Definition of Diversity in Aging In simple terms, diversity is "otherness," or those human qualities that are different from our own and outside the groups in which we belong. There are various qualities that differentiate one individual from the next. In your reading, Stoller and Gibson characterize diversity as a social construct. They differentiate diversity from heterogeneity, citing Toni Calasanti, that diversity is different from heterogeneity such that diversity refers to the interlocking structural positions of groups within a society, something related to social and political category. On the other hand, heterogeneity is individual differences, individual-level variation such as skin color, height, body shape, genetic disease, etc. In the United States, diversity issue is much more complex than in other societies where single race or ethnicity is composed of the very majority of the population; different from in some communist countries in which stratification of social class is not as complex as in United States; and different from countries where gender role is much more conservative and traditional. |
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| Elements of Diversity 1. Primary Dimensions Race/ethnicity, gender, social class and culture are some examples of major elements of diversity. Race is often used as a biological concept of differentiating humans mostly based on skin color while ethnicity is more socially defined term often based on language or culture. It is not simple to differentiate race and ethnicity because those two terms are often overlapped and interchangeably used in census, research and field practice setting. The term ethnic diversity refers to the differences between people due to ethnicity. Differences in skin color, facial structure, and belief systems are likely to have roots in ethnic diversity. The United States is made up of people with a wide variety of ethnic backgrounds. Terms such as Asian-American, Hispanic-American, and African-American have become commonplace in our schools, businesses, and media. The practice of celebrating the differences among Americans has become prevalent. As you have read in Stoller and Gibson's book, people from Italy or Sweden did not think that they are white. But they are often categorized as white because they came from certain areas. Among those who are viewed as white, for example, they may be categorized as Hispanic, in fact. In research areas, race issues are very complicated. Most often times, researchers categorize ethnic groups as non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, non-Hispanic Asians, non-Hispanic native Americans, and Hispanics. Sex and gender are also interchangeably used terms in daily lives. Sex is more biological concept while gender is more socially oriented term. Thus, when we say gender, it implies socially given roles and norms embedded in gender. Whether a person is man or woman, that is an element of diversity, which leads to further differences, which will be discussed below. Social class Is it a biological construct or social construct? Are poor people genetically born as being ended up with being poor? Or is that simply socially constructed? Researchers now started opening their eyes to examine how these diversity elements are mutually related; not worrying about whether they are strictly biological or social construct, but much more interested in how they are related. Example: Race/ethnic diversity This is one of the examples that show the complex diversity in aging in the United States. In 2000, an estimated 84% of people age 65 or older are non-Hispanic white, 8% are non-Hispanic black, 2% are non-Hispanic Asian and Pacific Islander, and less than 1% are non-Hispanic American Indian and Alaska Native. Hispanic persons are estimated to make up 6% of the older population. You may think this population composition is very natural. But in fact, this is not the case in many other countries. Why does this matter? Combination of diverse ethnic groups in itself is not a good or bad thing. As we will see later, the consequences of diversity in race and ethnicity matter in terms of their relations to social class, cultural conflict, political debate. People used to say that we live in a melting pot, indicating that different people from all over the world who have different culture, origin of nation, language are absorbed in American society and live together. But now people have started saying that we live in a mosaic society, in which different groups are not combined together to make one picture. Rather they are just putting themselves together as they are. It will be more and more likely to be this way. If then, diversity issue will be more critical in the future.
2. Secondary Dimensions What are some secondary dimensions of diversity? For example, personality. It looks like an individual construct. But personality is also socially constructed. Those who grew up in a poor single parent family would face more challenging situation to develop positive personality than those who grew up in a harmonious family with good monetary, educational and emotional support from parents. How about cohort differences? Are those who grew up in 1930s experiencing the Great Depression likely to have the same aging experiences from you who are getting more education and better nutrition? Maybe not. Geographic locations, marital status, living arrangements, sexual orientation, functional ability, religious beliefs are only a few examples of secondary dimensions of diversity. These dimensions of diversity affect an individual's perception and reaction to life, their interactions with others, and their view of society and the world. This course will address each of these dimensions of diversity in order to promote discussion and thought about unique individual differences. This exposure and discussion will only assist you in accepting and being aware of differences among clients, customers, family, neighbors and others in the workplace. There are also many other dimensions of diversity, as you saw in the University of Maryland's definition. Throughout the semester we will discuss many of the major factors contributing to diversity in the United States and around the world. We will return to each of these topics and cover them in greater detail over the course of the semester. Let's briefly discuss some secondary dimensions of diversity. |
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| Visit the following web-site. Explore the types of resources and information that can be found on diversity issues. Note the definitions, orientations, and angles presented. |
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| Interactions of Elements
of Diversity How about living arrangements? More women live alone in their later life than men while men are more likely to live with spouse because women tend to outlive men about 7 years, and men tend to marry younger women. Also, remarriage is more common among men than women. All together gender affects differences in living arrangements.
Men and women are different in health status. Men and women are better or worse in health status depending on what measure of health we are looking at. For example, men are more likely to get the chronic diseases such as cancer, stroke and heart diseases than women. On the other hand, women are more likely to have arthritis and hypertension than men. In terms of functioning difficulties, a higher percent of women is unable to perform physical activities such as walking, climbing stairs, stooping, reaching up or so than men. So gender is the mechanism by which health differences exist among older people. Gender is also a factor that affects health care utilization. Older women at all ages have higher rates of nursing home residency than men partly because women are older than men on average, and also women are more likely to live alone and have no relatives to take care of them while men are more likely to be taken care of by their spouse. We will see each factor and its consequences to or interaction with other factors in the following sessions. But I just want you to understand that elements of diversity are working together and they are complicatedly intertwined in our individual, social and political lives. |
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| Why do We Care About Diversity? We have discussed definition of diversity and its dimensions. Why is it important to understand diversity issues in aging? We already answered part of it. Let's think about it more in details. We are experiencing more and more diversity in our society and more diversity issues will be noticed in the future. For example, we will have more ethnic minority groups in the future. Particularly, Asians and Hispanics are fast growing minority groups. Increased number of ethnic minority will necessitate our society to be more sensitive to their needs and voices. Can we provide quality services to those who do not speak English without being aware of what are consequences of language barriers in receiving services? If we do not understand cultural differences among different ethnic groups, can we provide appropriate options of long-term care services? If people are facing different aging experience based on these differences, policies and services for them should be sensitive enough to take care of those differences. Elements of diversity we just looked at are important in that they have important consequences. Unless we understand the dynamics in diversity issues, it would be hard to understand social and political consequences and oppression, conflict or advantages and disadvantages in aging experiences among a variety of groups. |
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| Aging in the United States and Around the World Characteristics of an Aging Nation
While Americans have long thought of our nation as youthful, Census Bureau data for the 20th century clearly show that, on average, we are living longer. Life expectancy is now 79 for women and 72 for men, and the length of life is expected to continue to increase. Most of the growth in life expectancy has occurred at the younger ages because of the reduction in childhood diseases. Acute diseases, such as heart attack and stroke, are also less likely to have a fatal impact than in the past. This increase in life expectancy has resulted in substantial increase in the size of the older population, as well as the proportion of the total population that is old. For instance, the 65+age group in the United States increased from 4% of the population in 1900 to 12.7% (32 million individuals) by 1990. The fastest growing part of the population is the oldest old, or those over age 85. They increased from 123,000 (.2% of the population) in 1900 to 3,254,000 (1.3%) in 1990. They represent 10% of the 65+ population, while the young old, those 65-74, represent 22% of the total older population. In addition, the number of centenarians, individuals over the age of 100, is projected to increase from 61,000 to 100,000 by the year 2050. |
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Future Growth of the Older Population
We do not really know what the future holds, but we can follow a trend and have expectations for future developments. In the year 2010, the first of the baby boom generation (those born between 1946 and 1964) will begin to reach the age of 65. By the year 2020, there will be 52+ million people over the age of 65 (17.7% of the population), and the 85+ population will have reached 6,651,000 (2.3%). When projected to the year 2050, the 85+ population will account for 5.1% of the total population of the United States. An easier way to approach this age shift is to recognize the need for an increase in products, services, professionals, organizations, senior centers, and living accommodations to serve this population. |
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The nations of the world are generally placed in one of two categories: developed or developing. Those in North America and Europe tend to be "developed" while other parts of the world hold the "developing" status. The United Nations defines age 60 as "old", while most countries use age 65 to separate the old from the middle-aged. Thus, there are inconsistent measurements of the extent of aging. Different nations have their own definitions and it makes it difficult to generalize population aging worldwide. As you read about aging in numerous nations, keep in mind the various differences that are involved in defining age, collecting data, analyzing data, as well as cultural definitions on age. The phenomena of population aging is not limited to the United States and other developed nations. Most developing countries are also experiencing it, although the proportion of older people in each society varies widely. Every month the net number of people over age 60 in the world increases by more than 1,000,000 and 70% of them are in developing countries. In fact, the majority of older people live in developing countries which are increasingly concerned about the family, social, and economic implications of such a demographic change. All areas of the world are experiencing increases in median age and numbers of older people. In 1980, there were 259 million old people. This figure is expected to grow to 761 million by the year 2025. Developing nations have a lower percentage of individuals above the age of 65, for example, in Africa and South Asia; approximately 3% of their populations are over the age of 65. This worldwide increase in the older population will have impact on social security systems, costs of health care, social services, and pension programs. Incentives for later retirement will be needed, as well as job retraining programs to encourage active elderly to remain in the workforce. Allowing more immigration will be considered as a way to increase the proportion of younger individuals, thus lowering the dependency ratio. Ethnic minorities make up 14% of the older population in the United States today, but that percentage will increase in the future because older minority groups will increase faster than will whites. For instance, only 8% of African Americans are old, but they are the fastest growing segment of the Black population; Hispanics are the fastest growing minority aged group and only 3.5% of Hispanics are 65+, but rising rapidly. These statistics represent strong implications for service providers and the distribution of government programs and resources. Many of this population has low levels of education, may not have health insurance or receive Social Security due to employment history, and many do not speak English proficiently. The study of populations of ethnic minorities is fueled by two phenomena: (1) the rapid growth of the populations due to immigration, high fertility rates in certain ethnic communities, and lowered fertility rates of the majority population, and (2) the rapid growth of minority elder populations due to increases in life expectancy and decreases in mortality. |
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| Minorities in the U.S. Elder Population Immigration has shaped the United States from the beginning. People from all over the world flocked to America to begin a new life, to live out the "American Dream" of opportunity and prosperity. For over 200 years, individuals seeking political, religious, and personal freedom have resettled their families and themselves in this country. This continues to be true today. Large numbers of immigrants arrive in the United States yearly, looking for a chance at a new life. While many of the foreign born older adults in the United States today moved here as young people (50% of foreign-born elderly arrived before 1950), many have moved in their later years to spend their elder years with adult children and grandchildren. One-tenth of the total older population of the United States is foreign born, with most residing in California, New York, and Hawaii. Older adults who are recent immigrants to the United States are more likely to be from Asia or Latin America, whereas those who moved as young people are likely to be from European countries. Recent immigrants are not likely to speak English, have pensions, or any source of regular income, and will not be eligible for Social Security. More than 25% of recent elderly immigrants receive welfare compared to the 7% of United States born older adults. Diversity extends far beyond skin and hair coloring. It extends into every aspect of life. I hope you view the following Modules keeping in mind the multitude of dimensions that differentiate one person from the next. |
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After you have completed the Module and email assignment, please enter the CyberClass for a discussion. Vignettes: Different Aging Experience The following vignettes provide examples of the wide diversity of aging experience among older Americans (Vignettes used here are from Fried, S., & Mehrotra, C. (1998). Aging and Diversity: An Active Learning Experience (pp.3-4). Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Francis). Please read them and discuss the following questions.
Vignette 1: Martha Cosgrove has lived in a box under a bridge in Cleveland for close to 7 years. While she still hears those "awful little voices" now and again, it is not as bad as it was when she was in the state hospital. She does not take those silly little pills that they gave her over at the city health clinic because they make her feel like "snakes are crawling all over." Her stomach hurts a great deal of the time, and sometimes her feet swell up. At 66 years of age, Martha has endured many difficulties. Her father was lynched right in front of her eyes when she was 10 years old simply because he was Black, and her first husband loved drugs at least as much as he cared about her. But now it's winter and Martha is very cold. Vignette 2: A 70-year-old retired automobile factory worker, Juan Herriera, is enjoying retirement. Rosa, his wife of 50 years, devotes her life to taking care of his every need. When they were growing up in Colombia, their families lived next door to each other. It has been a great marriage for Juan, but Rosa has been less content. Sure Juan made a decent living, but what was there for Rosa? After their children grew up, there seemed little for her to do except take care of Juan. She never worked; Juan just wouldn't allow it. Over the years, she thought of leaving the marriage but never did. Now Rosa is 68 years old and in good physical health, but she is just "going through the motions" in her marriage, much as she has done for the last 50 years. Vignette 3: Samuel Goldstein is sitting on the deck of his condominium in Los Angeles. While he is 77 years old, he jokes that he doesn't look a day over 75! His wife, Pearl, died 2 years ago after a long bout with cancer. At the urging of his son, Sam began to mingle socially last year. It seemed awkward at first, but now Sam likes all the attention that he is receiving from several widows. His latest love interest is Irma, whom he met at a social function over at the synagogue. Next weekend, Sam and Irma are going to San Diego. At this point, Sam is not interested in remarriage, just in having some fun and in the companionship that his relationship with Irma provides. Vignette 4: Mei-kum Chan celebrated her 80th birthday in a nursing home. Last year, she fractured a hip, and her son and daughter-in-law felt that they could no longer care for her at home. Mei-kum's son, David, and his wife, Jan, run their own small business. The business has been a struggle, but they are starting to make a little money. The cost of the nursing home is putting a great strain on family finances, but what could they do? She needs the care, and since David is an only child, it is his responsibility! Mei-kum, David, and Jan all regret Mei-kum's placement in the nursing home. While growing up in China, Mei-kum lived with her parents, siblings, and, for many years, a frail grandfather. Mei-kum expects to one day die at home among her loved ones. |
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Here is your question. Write a 250-400 word essay on why the study of diversity is important in the study of aging. What are the critical points in understanding diversity that help to address the problems and issues of older people? Questions to Consider
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